The Royal Road of the Achaemenids in Darius Empire

The Royal Road of the Achaemenids in Darius Empire The Royal Road of the Achaemenids was a major intercontinental thoroughfare built by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty king Darius the Great (521–485 BCE). The road network allowed Darius a way to access and maintain control over his conquered cities throughout the Persian empire. It is also, ironically enough, the same road that Alexander the Great used to conquer the Achaemenid dynasty a century and a half later. The Royal Road led from the Aegean Sea to Iran, a length of some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers). A major branch connected the cities of Susa, Kirkuk, Nineveh, Edessa, Hattusa, and Sardis. The journey from Susa to Sardis was reported to have taken 90 days on foot, and three more to get to the Mediterranean coast at Ephesus. The journey would have been faster on horseback, and carefully placed way stations helped speed the communication network. From Susa the road connected to Persepolis and India and intersected with other road systems leading to the ancient allied and competing kingdoms of Media, Bactria, and Sogdiana. A branch from Fars to Sardis crossed the foothills of the Zagros mountains and east of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, through Kilikia and Cappadocia before reaching Sardis. Another branch led into Phyrgia. Not Just a Road Network The network might have been called the Royal Road, but it also included rivers, canals, and trails, as well as ports and anchorages for seaborne travel. One canal built for Darius I connected the Nile to the Red Sea. An idea of the amount of traffic that the roads saw has been gleaned by ethnographer Nancy J. Malville, who examined ethnographic records of Nepali porters. She found that human porters can move loads of 60–100 kilograms (132–220 pounds) a distance of 10–15 kilometers (6–9 miles) per day without the benefit of roads. Mules can carry loads of 150–180 kg (330–396 lbs) up to 24 km (14 mi) per day; and camels can carry much heavier loads up to 300 kg (661 lbs), some 30 km (18 mi) per day. Pirradazish: Express Postal Service According to the Greek historian Herodotus, a postal relay system called pirradazish (express runner or fast runner) in Old Iranian and angareion in Greek, served to connect up the major cities in an ancient form of high-speed communication. Herodotus is known to have been prone to exaggeration, but he was definitely impressed with what he saw and heard. There is nothing mortal that is faster than the system that the Persians have devised for sending messages. Apparently, they have horses and men posted at intervals along the route, the same number in total as the overall length in days of the journey, with a fresh horse and rider for every day of travel. Whatever the conditions- it may be snowing, raining, blazing hot, or dark- they never fail to complete their assigned journey in the fastest possible time. The first man passes his instructions on to the second, the second to the third, and so on. Herodotus, The Histories Book 8, chapter 98, cited in Colburn and translated by R. Waterfield. Historic Records of the Road As you might have guessed, there are multiple historical records of the road, including such as Herotodus who mentioned the royal waystations along one of the best-known segments. Extensive information also comes from the Persepolis Fortification Archive (PFA), tens of thousands of clay tablets and fragments incised in cuneiform writing, and excavated from the ruins of Darius capital at Persepolis. Much information about the Royal Road comes from the PFAs Q texts, tablets which record the disbursement of specific travelers rations along the way, describing their destinations and/or points of origin. Those endpoints are often far beyond the local area of Persepolis and Susa. One travel document was carried by the individual named Nehtihor, who was authorized to draw rations in a string of cities through northern Mesopotamia from Susa to Damascus. Demotic and hieroglyphic graffiti dated to Darius Is 18th regnal year (~503 BCE) has identified another important segment of the Royal Road known as Darb Rayayna, which ran in North Africa between Armant in the Qena Bend in Upper Egypt and the Kharga Oasis in the Western Desert. Architectural Features Determining Darius construction methods of the road is somewhat difficult since the Achmaenid road was built following older roadways. Probably most of the routes were unpaved but there are some exceptions. A few intact sections of the road which date to Dariuss time, such as that at Gordion and Sardis, were constructed with cobblestone pavements atop a low embankment from 5–7 meters (16–23 feet) in width and, in places, faced with a curbing of dressed stone. At Gordion, the road was 6.25 m (20.5 ft) wide, with a packed gravel surface and curbstones and a ridge down the middle dividing it into two lanes. Theres also a rock-cut road segment at Madakeh which has been associated with the Persepolis–Susa road, 5 m (16.5 ft) wide. These paved sections were likely limited to the vicinities of cities or the most important arteries. Way Stations Even ordinary travelers had to stop on such long journeys. A hundred and eleven way-posting stations were reported to have existed on the main branch between Susa and Sardis, where fresh horses were kept for travelers. They are recognized by their similarities to caravanserais, stops on the Silk Road for camel traders. These are square or rectangular stone buildings with multiple rooms around a broad market area, and an enormous gate allowing parcel- and human-laden camels to pass under it. The Greek philosopher Xenophon called them hippon, of horses in Greek, which means they probably also included stables. A handful of way stations have been tentatively identified archaeologically. One possible way station is a large (40x30 m, 131x98 ft) five-room stone building near the site of Kuh-e Qale (or Qaleh Kali), on or very close to the Persepolis–Susa road, known to have been a major artery for royal and court traffic. It is somewhat more elaborate than would have been expected for a simple travelers inn, with fancy columns and porticoes. Expensive luxury items in delicate glass and imported stone have been found at Qaleh Kali, all of which leads scholars to surmise that the site was an exclusive way station for wealthier travelers. Travelers Comfort Inns Another possible but less fancy way station has been identified at the site of JinJan (Tappeh Survan), in Iran. There are two known near Germabad and Madakeh on the Pesrpolis–Susa road, one at Tangi-Bulaghi near Pasargadae, and one at Deh Bozan between Susa and Ecbatana. Tang-i Bulaghi is a courtyard surrounded by thick walls, with several smaller ancient buildings, which fits other types of ancient buildings but also caravanserais. The one near Madakeh is of similar construction. Various historic documents suggest that there were likely maps, itineraries, and milestones to aid travelers in their journeys. According to documents in the PFA, there were also road maintenance crews. References exist of gangs of workmen known as road counters or people who count the road, who made sure that the road was in good repair. There is also a mention in the Roman writer Claudius Aelianus De natura animalium indicating that Darius asked at one point that the road from Susa to Media be cleared of scorpions. Archaeology of the Royal Road Much of what is known about the Royal Road comes not from archaeology, but from the Greek historian Herodotus, who described the Achaemenid imperial postal system. Archaeological evidence suggests that there were several precursors to the Royal Road: that portion which connects Gordion to the coast was likely used by Cyrus the Great during his conquest of Anatolia. It is possible that the first roads were established in the 10th century BCE under the Hittites. These roads would have been used as trade routes by the Assyrians and Hittites at Boghakzoy. Historian David French has argued that the much later Roman roads would have been constructed along the ancient Persian roads as well; some of the Roman roads are used today, meaning that parts of the Royal Road have been used continually for some 3,000 years. French argues that a southern route across the Euphrates at Zeugma and across Cappodocia, ending at Sardis, was the main Royal Road. This was the route taken by Cyrus the Younger in 401 BCE; and it is possible that Alexander the Great traveled this same route while conquering much of Eurasia in the 4th century BCE. The northern route proposed by other scholars as the main thoroughfare has three possible routes: through Ankara in Turkey and into Armenia, crossing the Euphrates in the hills near the Keban dam, or crossing the Euphrates at Zeugma. All of these segments were used both before and after the Achaemenids. Sources Asadu, Ali, and Barbara Kaim. The Acheamenid Building at Site 64 in Tang-E Bulaghi. Achaemenet Arta 9.3 (2009). Print. Colburn, Henry P. Connectivity and Communication in the Achaemenid Empire. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 56.1 (2013): 29–52. Print.Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. Aspects of Empire in Achaemenid Sardis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print.French, David. Pre- and Early-Roman Roads of Asia Minor. The Persian Royal Road. Iran 36 (1998): 15–43. Print.Malville, Nancy J. Long-Distance Transport of Bulk Goods in the Pre-Hispanic American Southwest. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 20.2 (2001): 230–43. Print.Stoneman, Richard. How Many Miles to Babylon? Maps, Guides, Roads, and Rivers in the Expeditions of Xenophon and Alexander. Greece and Rome 62.1 (2015): 60–74. Print.Sumner, W. M. Achaemenid Settlement in the Persepolis Plain. American Journal of Archaeology 90.1 (1986): 3–31. Print.Young, Rodne y S. Gordion on the Royal Road. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 107.4 (1963): 348–64. Print.

What Defines Effective Care Planning for a Patient with Dual Diagnosis Essay

What Defines Effective Care Planning for a Patient with Dual Diagnosis - Essay Example Abuse of these drugs for a long time can lead to emotional problems or even more mental disorders like Sebastian started with just hearing voices and now it has developed to the feeling of as if people are after him; moreover, it is required that in a case of dual diagnosis both problems be treated together where the first step or the foundation for the treatment is stopping the drugs. Unfortunately, dual diagnosis is more common than most people imagine; research shows that forty five percent of all drug and alcohol abusers have at least one mental problem and of all the people that have mental disorder twenty nine percent are either drug or alcohol abusers (Mark & Tom, 1999, 1098). Apart from cases where people are diagnosed with mental problems first then they start abusing alcohol and drug abuse for relief; there are cases where people start off with drugs when young, which continues into adulthood and this makes a major contribution to emotional difficulties or mental disorders i.e. Sebastian who started of alcohol when he was young which went on to develop a mental problem where he was hearing voices in his head. Assessment Dual Diagnosis recovery has come out as the most thriving treatment aspects of psychiatric and drug abuse treatment where they are treated as part as a continuum instead of treating them one by one or separately by different clinicians (Joanne, 2013, 1). Specialists of drug abuse addiction treatment are now being given training and testimonials in the treatment of mental/psychiatric disorders; additionally, dedicated rehab facilities offer recovery services for individuals with Dual Diagnosis e.g. Sebastian being treated by a single doctor who specializes in both drug abuse and psychiatric disorders. However, the challenging part of it is finding the precise rehabilitation program especially if the person has a combination of drug addiction and depression or anxiety disorders. In the past Dual Diagnosis has been defined along drug abus e and mental disorders alone; shockingly, today there are other addictions that have been added into the classification i.e. sex addiction, gambling addiction or another behavioural addiction like Sebastian listening to music as he smokes cannabis. Significantly, for a person with dual diagnosis to undergo the proper treatment and increasing the chances of a full recovery; they should be concerned with a few things; psychotherapeutic medication, supportive approach to therapy by a highly trained treatment team or specialist and inclusive treatment strategy where family, relatives and other household members are involved in therapy. In Sebastian’s case, the treatment will commence with two brief screen tests; one that deals with issues of alcohol and cannabis abuse, and the other test will for the mental disorder, which will assist in identifying the need for co-occurring mental disorder services (David, 2013, 14). Even though the screening does not diagnose the co-occurring d isorder, it is effectual in identifying the need for an assessment to look at the dealings between his psychiatric disorders symptoms i.e. voices in his head and alcohol and cannabis abuse, and the effect they have on his health. Some of the tools to be used in the screening process will include the AUDIT and CAGE, which should provide a surprisingly significant amount of information that will be very useful in Sebastian’

The House of Tata Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The House of Tata - Assignment Example This strategy is positive in that the new products that are introduced in the market will receive applause since the brand is already known. However, in some instances, the new products that are introduced in the market are not pleasing since the brand of other products is not performingwell. b) Building of equity interlocks among the Tata companies Building interlocks of equities creates a scenario where the companies are working in unison. The companies are better placed as they have a lot of activities in common. For instance, the group of companies will have substantial equities that will make a greater investment. This is like pooling resources together in the group of companies. Therefore, the group of companies will be able to invest in other activities that need a huge investment (Khanna, Krishna and Wu Melito, 2). However, companies that are not indulged in interlocking equities are not well prepared to invest in activities that need a large sum of accounts. Similarly, inter locking equities brings ahighrate of interest. For instance, the interest rate that is accrued on lump sum equity is much more than the interest that is accrued on minute equity. Therefore, this was a prudent activity to the companies as it would increase the company’s gains in the long run. ... Therefore, in this case selling part of Tata company was againstthecompany’s need for expansion. This limited its market segments and would lead to diminished performance of the company. Similarly, selling part of the company was a step that reduced the operating capital of the company. Therefore,most of its activities in the market were reduced. d) Revitalisation of Tata administration The administration of a company is considered a vital aspect that will dictate its performance. A company that has utterly trained and experienced administration is likely to give positive results at the end of each financial year. However, any company thatdoes not have an experienced and dedicated administration is not likely to make a positive accrual in the business. In this case, Tata was vigilant in ensuring the administration was functioning to its advantage. The change in administration meant that the company was prepared to make an improvement in its activities. Similarly, this would re cord an improvement in the financial management, economic development and all other activities that are vital in the company. Similarly,there is positivity in that revitalisation of the administration improved on the specialisation in the company. The people that are well trained in particular places will be given an opportunityto serve the company to their best. As such,they will increase the performance of the business to greater heights as they will have an enhanced position. This is a prudent aspect that would improve the performance of the company and give the company an added advantage. 2. Corporate portfolio in 1995 The corporate portfolio that was done in 1995 was a vital activity to the company (Khanna, Krishna and Wu Melito, 4). This

Business competitive Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Business competitive - Case Study Example Despite our commitment to delivery of quality products, the company has recently been faced with safety challenges following the meat poisoning incident in Saskatchewan, Canada which was traced back to the company’s meat products. This incident led to temporary closure of the Winnipeg processing plant by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) and the management has fully cooperated with the authorities for a revision of cleaning protocols at the plant. However, the closure led to cutting of working hours for some of our employees who were seemingly not pleased with the move. The company’s communication office has been closely monitoring the situation with an aim of assuring the public of our continued commitment to safety issues, and most importantly to avoid any further panic which would greatly affect our operations and overall profitability. In doing so, the Director of Communications has continuously monitored reporting of the incident by the media and keeps a c lose scrutiny of both employee and customer comments and reactions regarding the incident. This led to the discovery of unpleasant commentaries on one of the social media sites regarding Oaktree’s commitment to safety and customer concerns. ... serve as a long-term strategy to crisis management and in particular to address issues of employee communications and responses towards internal organizational crisis. However, it is important to note that the recommendations given here are subject to various internal and external constraints including but not limited to budgetary issues that may hinder financing of a proposed strategic solution. In addition, methods of aligning mentioned recommendations with the overall company strategic plans and objectives, and government regulations on human resource engagement with employees. Situation Analysis The above illustrated situation qualifies to be termed a crisis and its management involves pre-established activities and guidelines for adequate preparation and response to incidents that may damage the company’s integrity and reputation. It is therefore essential that human resource managers establish a collaborative work culture with to-down commitment to ensure that effective solutions are in place. This important role of the human resource function of the organization ensures that organization problems are sufficiently diagnosed. The above situation has never been experienced before which calls for development of a new strategic plan into the overall company strategic plan. It is however important to note that any plan recommended for implementation might be met with some degree of negative response from especially the employees as it will imply newer channels of working in the company. One of the internal factors that has been identified as influencing employee behaviour is the actions of colleagues which calls for development of an internal culture that will see to it that the company’s integrity is upheld at all times in order to ensure increased productivity.

Services Marketing Management - Comparison of two service Essay

Services Marketing Management - Comparison of two service sectors(broad explanation in the assignment criteria section) - Essay Example Traditionally, many service industries both business and non business sectors would not be market oriented, in fact, there are several reasons behind it. Marketing business and non business services include some basic elements as marketing goods. And they should focus on good services by defining their segments and target markets. The four main characteristics can differentiate services marketing from goods i.e. intangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity and perishability. These factors should be followed in an effective manner to make service marketing strategy more good and successful. Wolver Hampton Bus Station is owned and operated by the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive. Under the authority of West Midlands Passenger Transport, they promote and develop public transport across West Midlands. (Transport and travel Research, 2005).This public transport service came into force on 1st October 2002. They work for the benefit and ease for the public in Wolver Hampton and all across West Midlands. They take responsibility to provide effective public transports to its customers. They also promise to provide good and effective service especially for blind and disabled people to make their travel easy and free of hurdles. Because wheelchairs and mobility scooters are increasing in UK, so, they also want to minimize that by providing the people with best and useful way of traveling. Service marketing is basically a concept of providing best services to its users and its customers. This company lacks in this area. They started the bus services but they didn’t provide any satisfactory services to its passengers. Customers are the king because they make the company successful. There were several other issues and problems in Wolver Hampton bus service which really dissatisfied its passengers. In short, this bus service failed to provide good services to their

Marks and Spencer Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Marks and Spencer - Case Study Example The other products that are sold by the company include; flowers, hampers and drinks such as wine. The company offers financial services to its customers like providing account cards, personal loans, unit trusts managements, life assurance schemes as well as pension policies to its customers. The company is subdivided into three divisions and they are United Kingdom's retail, International retail and the financial services division (Megone, and Robinson, 2002). In the United Kingdom's retail division, the management sells different kinds of merchandise .This division is sub divided into business units' that include; women's wear, men's wear, children's wear, beauty items, home furnishings as well as food items. The International retail business is categorized into three geographical areas such as; Europe, North America and the Far East. The European international retail business is further on divided into Continental Europe, Republic of Ireland and European franchise businesses. In North America, the group operates two types of businesses such as Brooks Brothers and Kings Supermarkets. The Far East consists of 10 stores that store the products of the company that are later on sold to the customers. The financial services offered by the company to its customers include; account cards, personal loans, unit trusts as well as life assurance and pension policies. The suitable organizational structure for this company is that of the matrix organizational structure. This structure involves arranging its activities according to the employees function and products. The structure can combine the best functions and product structures within an organization. Functional organizations are organized according to the technological disciplines. A functional manager is normally appointed so as to allocate the resources within the organization in the appropriate way .The coordination of activities can be undertaken through following the laid down procedures, detailed specifications, and ensuring that meetings are held on a regular basis. Products that require specialized knowledge consists of functional organized structures. On the other hand, a product manager is charged with the responsibility of coordinating the product creation activities through liaising with the functional representatives of the organization. The major tasks of the product manager are to collect information, solve conflicts and enhance the facilitation of objectives of the organization are achieved within a stipulated period of time. The employees are expected to accomplish their tasks as required so as to exploit their potentials as well as be in a position to increase the sales returns of the company. They are also expected to understand the factors that have been hindering them from accomplishing the tasks that have been assigned to them. The importance of this kind of structure is that the management of the company can be in a better position to focus on the market segment thus be in a position to meet the needs of the customers with ease. There is also an element of competition between the divisions as they try to achieve the objectives that have been set for them to meet within a stipulated period of time.The divisions within the organization can be controlled with ease since they act on different profit centers of the organization. Marks and Spencer Company sells different kinds of products to the customers thus the product manag

Business Writing and Presentation Research Paper

Business Writing and Presentation - Research Paper Example Apparently, these economic activities include trade, which requires investment and the help of technology. Evidently, globalization needs the support of the political machinery in different countries. Notably, since it impacts the general environment and culture in different countries, the processes of trade affect culture and the processes themselves get affected by culture and adapt (Bonacich, 1998). Furthermore, globalization increases competition and adds to the quality of goods and services produced in a country (particularly less developed countries) (Lechner, 2012). Evidently, globalization has been present for a great deal of time Moreover, with the advent of technology, specially in the fields of communication, a great amount of mutuality now exists in terms of financial dependency and economic trade (Rein, 2012).It is importat to note that there is a lot of speculation regaridng globalization recently. On that point, the growth rate of international trade which was rapid, h as diminished in the past few years, especially with global economies going into recessions (Bonacich, 1998). However, globalization is still in the running and growing phase. In the past investments and technology innovations were moving from the Developed countries to the Developing or Less Developed countries (Lechner, 2012). However, that is a thing of the past now. Emerging markets are taking over the role in innovation and investments worldwide. For instance, Apple’s chief rival is not a European or even Japanese company, but South Korea’s Samsung (Arnett, 2004). Apparently, it is worth noting that as the textiles industry developed in China and Japan, China began exporting textiles and is now the leading exporter in the world. Notably, globalization has altered the competition in the world, which is further fuelled by economic reforms unique to its own country (Lechner, 2012). Although, globalization aims to enhance effeciency in production through